Containers

Any container or pot of a reasonable size can be used as a vegetable planter as long as it drains well. The size of your containers will decide the vegetables that can be grown in them, but it's always wise to choose as large a container as possible. The larger the container, the more soil it can hold, and more soil means more water and nutrients available for your plants. Soil in smaller containers tends to get dry very easily and will require more frequent watering, and it can also heat up quickly in hot weather. Containers of at least 10 litres volume, or 25cm deep by 25cm across, are about the smallest size recommended for growing vegetables. Fabric grow bags are another good option as they drain well and promote healthy root growth.

Potting Mix

It's best not to use the soil from your garden in containers. Garden soil doesn’t drain as well as potting mix, meaning that the roots of your vegetables may rot. Garden soil may also contain unseen weed seeds that can germinate once the soil is dug and watered, and these will compete with your vegetables for water and nutrients.

The best soil mixture for vegetable container gardening is high-quality potting mix bearing the Australia Standards logo. Potting mixes specially formulated for growing vegetables are a good choice, and they often contain organic supplements and slow-release fertiliser both of which help to ensure healthy growth for your crops. Compost, aged manure and worm castings can all be added to your potting mix too.

Sunlight

You should find a sunny spot to place your containers, as most popular vegetables need direct sun for at least six hours every day for healthy growth. These plants will grow even better if they have eight to 10 hours of sunlight daily. If your space receives less than six hours of direct sun a day you’ll likely be limited to growing leafy greens and herbs.

In hot climates or if your growing space is exposed to a lot of hard surfaces and heat, plants will do well if they’re shaded during the heat of the afternoon in summer. It's also best to avoid dark-coloured or metal containers as they draw heat which can burn your plant's roots.

Support

Many vegetables will benefit from some support in the form of a trellis or stakes. Using supporting structures to grow vegetables vertically can also increase the amount you can grow. It’s a good idea to put supports in before you plant, so you don’t disturb your plants’ roots later. Climbing beans and peas, cucumbers, tomatoes and zucchini can all be grown up trellises or garden stakes.

Watering

Container plants are planted in a relatively small amount of soil and therefore can dry out very easily. Many vegetable plants require a lot of water to grow properly but also shouldn't be overwatered. It's important that the soil be kept evenly moist, but not drenched or waterlogged. If this seems like a delicate balancing act, don’t despair. It takes just a little experience for most gardeners to recognise the signs of over- or under watering.

Test the amount of moisture in your containers daily by sticking your finger into the top few centimetres of soil. If it's very moist, it doesn't need any more watering. If it's dry, you should water the soil until a little water runs out of the holes at the bottom of the container, ideally into a shallow saucer. In the warmest months of the year, you will probably need to water the plants at least once a day.

Feeding Your Plants

In addition to the nutrients used by your plants, watering your container vegetables will gradually wash nutrients from the soil. This leaching is a natural process that also happens in garden soils. Mulching with an organic mulch like lucerne or sugar cane, spreading a 5cm to 10cm layer of compost onto the soil or adding a slow-release fertiliser at the rate recommended for pots will replenish the nutrients between crops. 

Vegetable plants need more intensive feeding than other plants because of their rapid growth. This is especially true when they’re grown in containers, as roots can’t spread out and search for nutrients as they would in the ground. Applying a small amount of liquid feed every few weeks can help vegetables to grow faster and stronger.

Vegetables for Container Gardening

Even though it is possible to grow almost any vegetable in a pot, not all vegetables are suited to growing in such close confines. For this reason, compact and small vegetable varieties need to be selected for your container vegetable garden. Vegetable plants that do well in containers include determinate tomatoes, potatoes, carrots, peas, zucchini, chilli and all sorts of leafy greens. Bush pumpkins, small varieties of cabbage, Asian greens and most herbs also thrive in containers.  

Growing a flourishing container vegetable garden will allow you to enjoy a bounty of vegetables come harvest time. Try to expand your garden with every passing season while learning from your mistakes on the way. The fruits of your labour will be yours for the picking.

If your flowering plants seem reluctant to bloom, what could be the reason? Here are nine possible causes and some easy solutions to explore.

1. Plants Are Too Young 

Many perennial plants only flower when they're well established, and this can take several years. For example, most fruit trees will take from two to five years to blossom, while some exotic plants can take decades. Even easy to grow annuals need time to establish their root systems, stems and leaves before they’ll develop flower buds.
 
Check the ‘days to maturity’ on grow guides to see when you can realistically expect your plants to flower, and if it's simply too early, continue to give them plenty of care and attention so they'll be in great health when the time comes.

2. Natural Flowering Patterns 

Few plants give a year-round show, with most species following one of three flowering patterns:

1. Annual flowering, with one single burst at a predictable time of year.
2. Repeat flowering, with several separate bursts or steady re-flowering over a set season.
3. Spot flowering, where a main burst is followed by either smaller, sporadic bursts or individual flowers.

If a mature plant doesn't flower within the expected pattern for that species, then it's time to look at some growing conditions that could be causing the problem.

3. Poor Fertiliser Use 

Reaching straight for the fertiliser bottle to treat non-flowering plants could be a mistake. While good nutrition is essential for a full flowering display, most plants will still produce some blooms even if they're underfed; some even flower more when they’re a little stressed. Using high-nitrogen fertiliser can encourage leafy growth at the expense of flowers, making the problem worse, while overfeeding with any fertiliser can lock existing nutrients into chemical compounds the plants can't break down, harming their health and future growth.

Focussing on having healthy soil boosted by organic nutrients like home made compost and aged animal manure is usually sufficient for good flower development. If fertiliser is required, take a ‘little and often’ approach and use one formulated for fruit and flowers.

4. Shady Conditions 

Although some flowering plants can tolerate shade, the majority need a good period of direct sunlight each day to power the development of flowers. Growing plants in a too-dark area is one of the most common causes of flowering failure, whether that's through a poor choice of garden position or allowing surrounding plants to overgrow them and block out the light.

It’s easy to be overly optimistic about the amount of direct sunlight your plants receive. Instead, carefully observe how sunlight moves across your growing space during the day in different seasons, and make realistic plant choices that match the amount of light available.

5. Temperature 

Excessively high temperatures can prevent flowering even in sun-loving plants. Because of this, in hotter areas where temperatures regularly reach the high thirties or more, some level of partial shade can be useful even when a grow guide recommends full sun. In contrast, some fruit trees, including cherry and apple, need a period of cool in spring to prompt flower formation, and will simply refuse to bloom in a climate that's too consistently warm.

Wild fluctuations in temperature can also affect flowering plants. Sometimes this may promote more flowering, sometimes less. All gardeners will have an ‘off’ season caused by unpredictable weather every now and again, so don’t be too hard on yourself if this happens to you.

6. Lack of Water 

Plants that are short of water won't waste precious resources on spectacular blooms. However, water-stressed plants may still grow a few small buds that remain closed, sometimes with stems that droop in the late afternoon. If you see this warning sign, consider whether your watering routine could use some improvement.

7. Pruning Problems 

It's essential to prune plants at the right time of year or you may be removing the growth that bears that season's flowers. Also, many plants will take a season or two to recover from a hard pruning, diverting energy into regrowth rather than producing blooms. Keep pruning to the right times of year for the plant variety, and try to prune lightly and often to avoid shocking a plant with a hard cut back every few years.

8. Pest Infestations 

Many pests target tender new growth including developing flower buds, either destroying them completely or stunting them by feeding on the sap. If you see buds one day but none the next, check for signs of possums, budworms, caterpillars, aphids and other common garden pests. If you can solve the problem before the season ends you may still see some flowering later on.

9. Outgrowing Their Space 

Many plants naturally grow in clumps or clusters, and over time they can become overcrowded for their space, leading to a sudden halt in flowering. In these cases, you can often rescue the plants by digging up the clumps, separating them, and replanting. Clumps of spring flowering bulbs like daffodils benefit from being lifted and divided every 3 years so that each plant has the space to grow good roots to access the nutrients needed to develop flowers.

Flowering plant species are born to bloom, but any of the problems above can produce a disappointing show. Thankfully, almost all are easily solvable to provide better results either later in the season or the following year.
 

Settling a new plant into its new home without a hitch requires some care and a bit of know-how. Here's a simple nine-step guide setting out all you need to know to plant your plant.

1. Choose Your Spot 

Moving a plant is always a shock to its system, no matter how carefully it's done, and to ensure you don't need to repeat the process it's important to choose its new home carefully. Make sure the position you select has the right amount of sun, proper drainage, good soil quality and so on. This not only gives your plant a head start after transplanting, it will also provide the conditions it needs into the future.

2. Prepare the Soil 

After choosing the best spot, it's important to prepare the soil as thoroughly as you can. Dig the area over to at least the depth of the plant pot plus 5cm to 10cm more, breaking up clumps and removing stones, while mixing in compost or fertiliser if needed. Now's also the time to remove any weeds and root pieces you find to help your plant settle in without competition.

3. Dig and Soak the Hole 

Next, dig the hole you're going to plant into, making it twice as wide as the pot and only a few centimetres deeper. The width is important to prevent roots circling around the hole and to make sure the soil around the root ball is loose enough to allow easy root growth outwards. The depth is important to ensure the plant's stem sits at the same height above the soil surface as it was in the pot. Importantly, keep the soil you've dug out for later use.

Once dug, fill the hole with water and let it drain fully away. This will let you check that drainage is good enough to avoid waterlogging while adding some moisture to the area around the planting hole at the same time.

4. Prepare the Plant

Ideally, leave plants in their pots in a sheltered position outdoors for a few days before planting them so they can get used to the conditions in their new environment. Keep the pots well watered so plants are unstressed and in good health before they’re planted out. 

Just before planting, give the pot a final water to thoroughly soak the potting mix. This will hydrate the plants’ roots and help you to ease the plant out of the pot. If the potting mix seems particularly dry it's a good idea to sit the pot in a bucket of water for a few minutes, ensuring a full and even soaking.

5. Remove the Plant from the Pot 

Before taking the plant out of its pot, check for roots coming out of the holes in the bottom, and either prune them off or free them up as best you can. Next, slowly turn the pot upside down with one hand while steadying the soil around the stem with the other, avoiding touching the plant as much as possible. The plant and its root ball should slide out under little more than gravity. If it seems stuck, tap around the outside of the pot to loosen the soil, give the pot a gentle squeeze, or carefully insert a thin, blunt object around the edges to free it up.

Next, inspect the roots of the plant. In some cases, there will be plenty of free soil around the roots. In others, there may be a tangle of roots circling around the outside. If this is the case, use your hands to untangle small roots, or use secateurs to cut through larger, circling roots. It’s better to have a slightly smaller root system that can grow freely outwards through the soil than to have a tight, restricted root ball that may not grow large enough to support the plant as it grows.

6. Transfer the Plant 

Place the plant the right way up in the hole, again touching it as little as possible, checking that the soil surfaces are level. If in doubt, the plant can be a centimetre or so lower so that part of the stem is buried rather than leaving any roots exposed.

For grafted plants such as fruit trees, take extra care to plant at the same level as it was in the pot. It’s important that the graft union, where the top part of the tree meets the rootstock, is not buried.

Then stand back and have a look at your plant from a distance. Make sure its stem is straight and that it looks good in relation to the plants around it. You may want to rotate the plant slightly so its most attractive side is facing towards the front of the garden bed. Look from a couple of vantage points before you move on to backfilling the hole.

7. Backfill the Hole 

Use the soil you've kept to refill the hole, working gently and keeping the plant as upright as possible. While it’s tempting to add new soil or fertiliser to the hole, using the soil you've kept earlier is the best option. If you use different soil with different drainage characteristics, you run the danger of either waterlogging or parching your plant. What’s more, you want to encourage root growth outwards from the planting hole; providing rich soil in the planting hole doesn’t do this. 

If you’re concerned that your plant needs extra nutrients, wait a few weeks until it has settled into its new home and you see the first signs of new growth. Then apply compost, manure or fertiliser on the surface of the planting hole and surrounding soil. 

8. Tamping Down and Watering In 

Once the hole is refilled, gently tamp down the surface to remove any air pockets without over-compacting the soil, then water well around the plant and the surrounding soil. Top up the soil as needed to create a level surface, then water lightly again. Keep to a frequent watering schedule over the next few weeks, erring on the generous side until growth has clearly resumed, showing that the plant has settled in. After that, return to your normal watering and feeding routines, as your plant should now be fully adjusted and happy in its new home.

9. Mulching

It’s a good idea to mulch around your newly planted plant. Mulching will suppress weeds in the recently disturbed soil, hold in moisture and gently break down to feed the soil. Spread a 5cm to 10cm layer of mulch around the planting hole and surrounding soil, leaving about 5cm clear of the stem in all directions, and water in well.

By following these nine simple steps, you can confidently add new plants to your garden, ensuring that they will thrive in their new home. So go forth and plant!

Understanding Clay Soil

Clay soil is characterised by its fine particles and very small air pockets, which give the soil a heavy, dense texture. Often orange or yellow in colour, clay soil is rich in weathered minerals and other nutrients. To touch, clay soil is cool and smooth-textured and can be formed into a ball or ribbon. If you’re not sure if you have clay soil, there’s a simple test that will reveal your soil type.

There are two main types of clay soil, called ‘reactive’ and ‘non-reactive’. Reactive clay soils absorb water readily, swelling and increasing in size when wet and then becoming very dry, often shrinking and cracking in the process. This property is why reactive clay is known as ‘shrink-swell’ clay. Non-reactive clay doesn’t hold as much moisture and doesn’t change size when wet - hence, it’s considered ‘stable’ - though in other respects both types of clay behave in similar ways.

One of the main challenges of gardening on clay soil is its poor drainage and tendency to become waterlogged during periods of heavy rain. This excess moisture can suffocate plant roots and promote the development of root rot and other fungal diseases. Additionally, clay soil tends to compact easily, especially when wet, making it difficult for plant roots to penetrate and access oxygen, water and nutrients.

Improving Clay Soil

Improving the structure and drainage of clay soil is often desirable to make it easier to work with and plant into. Incorporating organic matter, such as compost, aged manure or leaf mulch can help break up clay particles and improve soil aeration and drainage. A layer of organic mulch, such as wood chips, straw or shredded leaves, will add organic matter to the soil as it breaks down, further improving its structure.

Gypsum (calcium sulfate dihydrate) can help to break up clay soils, making them easier to dig without affecting the soil pH. It does this by replacing the sodium in soil with calcium. Gypsum will not help to improve all clay soils, but for many types of clay soil found in Australia it has benefits. For best results, apply gypsum at the recommended rate each winter.

Adding sand to clay soil isn’t recommended. Because clay’s particle size is so small, when mixed with sand the soil will actually become denser and heavier, resulting in a soil with a texture similar to concrete. That sort of soil isn’t appealing to any gardener!

Planting in Clay Soil

There’s a common misconception that you should add compost or purchased topsoil when backfilling a planting hole in clay. But this approach is counterproductive: rather than improving drainage, the amended soil will hold and retain water, potentially waterlogging the plant’s roots, while preventing water from moving into the surrounding soil. What's more, the plants' roots will grow within the amended soil rather than reaching beyond the planting hole to the surrounding soil. This prevents the plants' roots accessing nutrients in the long term, and the limited size of the root ball can cause instability.

A better option is to dig a wide planting hole just a little deeper than the plant’s root ball and at least 2 to 3 times as wide, with sloped edges. This type of planting hole is often described as an ‘open wok’ shape. If the sides of the hole are smooth, it’s a good idea to roughen them up with a mattock or garden fork so that roots can grow into the soil rather than circling around the outsides of the hole. Backfill with only the original soil. A few weeks after planting, spread some good quality compost and organic mulch on top of the soil around the plant.

Plants for Clay Soils

Many Australian native plants will thrive in clay soil, including eucalypt, callistemon, acacia, grevillea and grasses. Smaller flowering plants like salvias, rudbeckia, phlox and anemone are also at home on clay. And most vegetables will grow well in clay soil that’s been improved with organic matter and dug over to improve texture.

While gardening on clay soil may pose some challenges, with proper soil management techniques and plant selection, it's possible to create a productive and beautiful garden. In fact, many gardeners would happily choose clay over sand if given the choice. So don’t be intimidated by clay’s reputation - know your soil and work with it for a flourishing garden.

1. Your Seeds Fail to Sprout 

Depending on the type of seed you're using, they should start to sprout somewhere between a few days and a week into the sprouting process. If most or all of the seeds fail to sprout within that time, the most likely culprit is insufficient draining after soaking or rinsing the seeds. This can lead to the seeds rotting rather than germinating.

When you drain the jar, make sure that the jar is upside down or tilted to allow all excess water to drain away. You can give the container a little shake to get the last of the water out. It may seem counterintuitive - we all know that seeds need water to germinate, right? - but insufficient draining is the most common cause of poor sprouting. Drain all of the excess water from the container each and every time you rinse your seeds. 

Overcrowding is another cause of poor germination. Always add the recommended quantity of seeds for the size of the container you're using. It may seem that there are hardly any seeds in the jar, but the seeds that are there each need their own space, water and oxygen in order to grow. If you can’t find recommendations for the seeds you’re sprouting, 15ml of seeds per 500ml of space is a good rule of thumb to use.

Another reason your seeds may not germinate is if they are old or have been stored incorrectly. Almost all seed species have a maximum shelf life, after which their germination rate declines. This shelf life relies on the seeds being stored in cool, dry and dark conditions to keep them viable. If your sprouting rates are unsatisfactory, try again with a batch of fresh young seeds, and the problem may be solved.

Lastly, it can be rewarding to mix different seed sprout types in a salad, but trying to sprout different species together can produce unreliable results as germination times will naturally vary. Unless you're using a specialist mix designed to sprout at the same time, it's best to stick to one seed type per jar.

2. The Seeds are Smelly or Mouldy 

Sprouts being ruined by mould or unpleasant rotten smells is perhaps the most common problem you'll come across in your sprouting experiments. In most cases, this is caused by contamination, humidity, high temperatures, or a combination of all three. To avoid both mould and rot, keep these points in mind:

• Sprouts should be rinsed at least twice a day using a good amount of rinsing water to remove impurities as they appear. 
• After rinsing, the seeds should be properly drained to prevent them from sitting in too much water.
• Sprouts should be grown in relatively low humidity, so ensure good air circulation if necessary by placing the jar somewhere with good airflow such as near an open window.
• Only use thoroughly cleaned jars and lids, ideally sterilised, to prevent contamination by bacteria or mould spores.
• Consider using filtered water for rinsing as an extra layer of protection. 
• Keep the sprouts in cool conditions below 30°C, and only use cool water for rinsing.

If after taking these precautions you still see tiny mould-like threads appearing on the sprouts, you don't necessarily need to panic. Many brassica and grain seed types produce fine root hairs as they germinate which can easily be mistaken for mould. If these hairs flatten invisibly against the sprouts during rinsing but reappear later, and if there's no rotten or mouldy smell alongside, look very closely at one or two sprouts to see if you can see the tiny root hairs. You can then let the sprouting run its course.

3. The Finished Sprouts Taste Bitter 

Even if the sprouts seem to have formed perfectly and are free from mould or odour, they may still taste unpleasantly bitter once you come to try them. This is usually because they've had too much sunlight between germination and harvest, turning them green and grassy rather than sweet and tender.

Ideally, let the seeds sprout in darkness then give them a short period of sunlight just before harvest to improve their nutritional value. Around 15 to 60 minutes is long enough for most seed types to start turning a pale green. Also, it's important to harvest the sprouts before they develop their first leaves, as by then any natural sugars will be mostly used up to produce the seedling, making the sprout taste bitter.

All three of the problems discussed above are quite common when you first start growing sprouts, but don't be discouraged. With only a little experience and some trial and error, you can learn to avoid these issues and produce delicious, healthy sprouts each time you try.

Autumn is also the perfect time to focus on the health of your soil by adding a layer of compost and some aged animal manure, or by growing a green manure crop. Green manure, also called a compost or fallow crop, are plants sown purely to improve soil quality, texture, nutrients or disease load. A crop grown over autumn and winter can be tilled into the soil just before it flowers and left to compost in situ before planting flowers or veggies in late winter or spring. Browse our range of green manure seeds here.

Happy gardening from everyone at The Seed Collection!

April Planting

Seeds to Sow in April

The allium family stars in the winter garden, and bunching onion, chive and shallot seeds can all be sown this month. Also sow seeds of Chinese cabbage and spinach, along with peas, broad beans, carrot and beetroot. In the flower garden, plant hardy annuals now for a great show in early spring. Find a full list of Seeds to Sow in April here.

Seed Garlic

All varieties of seed garlic can be planted in April. Simply separate the bulbs into individual cloves and pop them 3-5cm deep into cultivated soil. Mounding up the soil or planting in raised beds is a good way to ensure it will drain perfectly. A liquid fertiliser can be applied every six weeks once shoots appear. Browse all seed garlic bulbs here.

Spring Flowering Bulbs

April is prime bulb planting time in all climates. Nighttime temperatures are dropping and the soil is cooling, creating perfect conditions for your bulbs. Flower bulbs and corms planted in April and May will develop strong root systems before sending up shoots in winter and early spring. Browse all flower bulbs here.

The climates of Tasmania and southern mainland Australia are well suited to cultivating these delicious roots, which need warmth for germination but benefit from cold temperatures close to harvest time. Parsnips can also be grown in warmer climates following the planting advice below.

Here are 10 tips for growing the sweetest parsnip roots in your garden:

1. Prepare the Soil

Cultivate the soil to a depth of at least 40cm to provide ample room for root growth. While parsnips, like carrots, can thrive in relatively poor soil, good drainage and aeration are essential for optimal results.

2. Use Fresh Seed

When it comes to parsnip seeds, freshness matters. Purchase your seeds close to when you intend to plant them. For the best germination rate, avoid using seed that has been stored for more than a year.

3. Plant at the Right Time

Parsnips will only germinate in warm soil, with a minimum temperature of 10-12°C up to around 20°C needed for success. In cool climates, plant from September or October through to May. In warmer climates, sow seed in autumn and grow the roots through winter. Keep in mind that germination is highly temperature-dependent and can take anywhere from a week to four weeks, so be patient. 

4. Direct Sow

Unlike some vegetables, parsnips don't take well to transplanting. This is due to their long and sensitive taproot, which begins to develop before the leaves. It's best to sow seeds directly into well-cultivated soil, thereby avoiding any disturbance to the delicate roots.

5. Maintain Moisture for Germination

It's crucial to keep the soil consistently moist until seeds germinate. One handy trick is to place a wooden board over the soil to help retain moisture. Lift the board to check for germination every few days. Alternatively, spread a fine layer of vermiculite or mulch over the seed rows, with thicker mulch either side to help conserve moisture.

6. Space Plants

Parsnips require plenty of room to flourish, as their tops grow large and play a vital role in providing energy for root development. Thin out seedlings as needed and aim for spacing of 15cm to 25cm between plants and 30cm to 40cm between rows to prevent overcrowding.

7. Go Easy on the Fertiliser

Like carrots, parsnips prefer soil that's not overly rich in nutrients. There’s usually no need to fertilise during the growing season, as too much nitrogen can result in oversized tops and forked roots.

8. Mulch for Weed Control and Moisture

Mulching around your parsnip plants serves multiple purposes. Not only does it help suppress weeds, but it also helps maintain soil moisture, preventing the roots from splitting. A lucerne or sugar cane mulch that breaks down during the growing season works well.

9. Harvest for Sweetness 

In cool and temperate climates, the best time to harvest parsnips is in late autumn or winter, ideally after a few frosts. Cold weather helps convert starches in the roots to sugars, enhancing their flavour. Typically, parsnips are ready to harvest around four months after sowing but can be left in the ground in cool temperatures until they’re needed. 

In warmer climates, harvest at the end of winter, before plants bolt and warm weather prompts roots to develop a tough inner core.

10. Remove Tops at Harvest

After harvesting your parsnips, remove the leaves so they don't draw moisture from the roots. Store roots in a cool, dark place until you're ready to enjoy their delicious flavour in your favourite recipes.

By following these 10 tips, you'll be well on your way to growing your own deliciously sweet and nutty parsnips. Happy gardening!

While heat-loving flowers like cosmos and zinnia can’t be planted until the weather warms up in spring, hardy annuals have a head-start, having already established a strong root system through winter. Read on to discover the best hardy annuals to grow and how to time your planting for the best results.

What are Hardy Annuals? 

Hardy annuals are plants that complete their life cycle in a single growing season and can survive cold temperatures, including frost. Unlike tender annuals that are typically planted in spring, hardy annuals are best planted in autumn in most climates. 

These plants thrive in cooler temperatures but often struggle once the summer heat arrives, especially in subtropical and tropical climates. By planting in autumn and growing them through winter, plants will flower in early spring before the worst of the hot weather knocks them over.

Why Grow Hardy Annuals?

There are many reasons to grow hardy annuals in your garden. These plants may be underwhelming during the winter months, but flower quickly in early spring, or even late winter, filling the gap between flowering bulbs and warm-season annuals. 

Some of the best cut flowers come from hardy annuals, including florists’ favourites like stock, larkspur, sweetpea and snapdragon. Many, such as Queen Anne’s lace, nigella and Californian poppy, are also reliable self-seeders, meaning that you don’t need to plant them each year. With so many benefits, it's no wonder hardy annuals are a favourite among gardeners!

Timing your Planting

As a rule of thumb, autumn and spring are the times to plant hardy annuals. Autumn planting is often preferred, especially in warm climates, as this allows plants to grow and flower before they are knocked over by hot weather. In cooler areas of Australia autumn planting is also recommended for flowers in early spring, though seeds can also be sown in early spring with flowers forming in summer.

If planting in an area that experiences regular frosts, some experimentation may be required to work out the best planting time. Often, large seedlings can withstand a frost that will see off more delicate, newly germinated plants. Sowing seed in early to mid-autumn will reward you with robust seedlings that can survive through winter and really take off in spring. If you experience regular, severe frosts (down to -5 or so), try larkspur, cornflowers and calendula, or wait until spring to plant.

How to Plant Hardy Annuals

Sow hardy annual seeds directly into prepared planting beds in full sun, or start seeds in trays eight to 10 weeks before you aim to transplant them into the garden.

The idea is for these cold-tolerant plants to have time to germinate, grow and develop a strong root system before the coldest winter weather and frosts hit.  Seedlings sown in autumn may languish and look a little daggy through winter; don’t be fooled by their reticence to shine, all the action in cool weather is underground and plants will recover quickly once the thermometer starts to climb in spring.

Favourite Hardy Annuals to Grow

• Calendula: A great companion plant and pollinator attractor that will bloom for months from mid-winter, with daisy-like edible flowers.
• Cornflower: An edible and bee-attracting cottage garden flower, with a wide range of colours available.
• Larkspur: Produces vertical spikes of blue, pink or white flowers that look stunning at the back of borders or in the vase.
• Nigella: A great self-seeder, with delicate flowers and attractive seed pods that seem to float above a mist of fine feathery foliage.
• Queen Anne’s Lace: Upright plants with large umbels of creamy white flowers. A lovely cut flower that will self-seed readily.
• Snapdragon: Compact plants that thrive in cool weather, producing colourful flower spikes in spring.
• Stock: A cut flower favourite.
• Sweetpea: A cold tolerant climber producing masses of fragrant flowers in winter, spring or summer depending on the variety.

So, if you desire a garden that brims with colour, attracts pollinators and provides abundant cut flowers, consider incorporating hardy annuals into your planting plan. With their versatility, adaptability, and ability to withstand cooler temperatures, they are a reliable choice for bringing life and vibrancy to your garden in spring.  

Let's explore the multifaceted world of comfrey, its cultivation, benefits and practical applications for your garden.

What is Comfrey?

Scientifically known as Symphytum officinale, comfrey is a herbaceous perennial growing to around 1.2m. Originating in Europe, this robust plant boasts rosettes of large, hairy grey-green leaves on stems that are topped by clusters of bell-like mauve flowers. It thrives in various climates, from cool temperate to tropical; in warm regions plants are evergreen but rarely flower, while in colder areas plants will flower, shed seed, then die down over winter.

Comfrey's secret lies in its roots: they grow deep into the subsoil - up to an astounding 2m in favourable conditions - accessing nutrients that elude more shallow-rooted plants. This unique characteristic gives comfrey superhero status in nutrient cycling. By chopping its leaves and using them for mulch or compost, you're basically bringing buried nutrients back up to the soil's surface. Handy, right? If you're in a rainy area comfrey can be particularly useful in trapping and reusing nutrients before they get washed deeper into the soil.

How to Grow Comfrey

Growing comfrey is easy, but as with any plant it's wise to consider its growth habits before planting.  

Comfrey thrives in full sun or partial shade, needing a minimum of three hours of sunlight daily. While comfrey is easy to get going in the garden, this attribute can be a drawback if you no longer want the herb in your space. Due to its persistent nature, selecting a permanent location in the garden is advisable to prevent plants spreading into unwanted areas. Comfrey can also be grown in containers, though container-grown plants' ability to cycle nutrients will obviously be limited.

Comfrey seeds can be slow to germinate, taking up to 30 days even in ideal conditions. Stratifying seeds before sowing them can speed up the process. In cool regions, planting can occur in either autumn or spring, while in subtropical areas, the ideal planting window is from February to October. Sow seeds in trays or punnets 5mm deep at soil temperatures of 20-22°C. Transplant established seedlings to the garden using a spacing of 60cm between plants.

Resilient in nutrient-poor soils, comfrey shouldn't need additional feeding during the growing season but will benefit from regular watering. Prune plants to the ground in late autumn or spring to promote vigorous regrowth. 

Harvest leaves sparingly in the first year, then as needed. Although generally pest-resistant, vigilance against slugs and snails is recommended.

Practical Uses of Comfrey

Beyond its ornamental appeal, comfrey has many uses both in the garden and out. Note that although comfrey is classified as a herb, it contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) that can be harmful to humans; eating comfrey is not recommended.

• Pollinator plant: Comfrey’s vibrant purple blooms attract bees, making it an excellent addition to pollinator-friendly gardens.
• Organic mulch: Comfrey leaves made a nutrient-rich mulch that gradually decomposes, enriching the soil. Grown under fruit trees, comfrey can be slashed and the leaves left in place to suppress weeds, retain soil moisture and release nutrients back into the soil. 
• Compost accelerator: Adding whole or chopped comfrey leaves to compost enhances its nutrient content and speeds up the composting process.
• Compost tea: Comfrey leaves readily decompose in water, creating a nutrient-rich brew ideal for fertilising plants.
• Chicken fodder: Often grown around chicken coops, small quantities of comfrey can be fed to chickens as a high-protein fodder. While nutritious, comfrey leaves should be offered in moderation due to their pyrrolizidine alkaloid (PA) content. Excessive consumption can pose toxicity risks, particularly in grazing animals. 
• Poultice: Comfrey has long been used as a poultice to heal bones, giving rise to its alternative name, ‘knitbone’. This use may originate more from the plant’s roots than its leaves. The roots reportedly set hard like plaster when they are mashed or grated and mixed with water then left to dry.
• Ointments and creams: Comfrey, often combined with olive oil or beeswax, makes a soothing skin ointment that’s reported to have anti-inflammatory properties. Comfry’s roots and leaves contain Allantoin, a substance thought to promote cell renewal, meaning that it’s often included in soothing and calming natural skincare products.

As you can see, comfrey offers a myriad of benefits to gardeners. Incorporate this powerhouse plant into your garden and you’ll be reaping its rewards for years to come.

Understanding Sandy Soil

Sandy soil is characterised by its gritty texture and low organic matter content. It drains quickly, which can be advantageous in preventing waterlogged roots and minimising the risk of plant diseases associated with overly wet conditions. However, this rapid drainage also means that sandy soil tends to dry out quickly, requiring frequent watering, especially during hot and dry periods. After periods of dry weather sandy soils often become what is known as hydrophobic, meaning that they actually repel water when it is applied.

If you're unsure if this description of sandy soil applies to your garden, there's a simple test you can do; learn about it here.

One of the primary challenges of gardening on sandy soil is its poor nutrient retention. Sandy soil lacks the clay and humus that hold nutrients in place and provide the essentials that beneficial microorganisms need to thrive. Organic matter and fertilisers are leached through the soil, resulting in stunted growth, pale foliage, and decreased yields for plants not suited to the conditions.

Improving Sandy Soil

To improve sandy soil and create a more hospitable environment for plants, incorporating organic matter is key. Compost, aged manure and leaf mulch can all enrich sandy soil so it can better retain moisture and nutrients. There’s no need to dig organic matter into the soil; rainfall, earthworms and other invertebrates will do this work for you. The only caveat is not to allow organic matter to dry out completely on the surface, as in some conditions it can form an impenetrable mat that can stop water making its way to the soil beneath.

For sandy soils that are hydrophobic, using a wetting agent in conjunction with organic matter can help. Using organic mulches will also help prevent evaporation while breaking down and adding nutrients to the soil over time.

Unfortunately, amendments to sandy soils need to be repeated at regular intervals. This is because, thanks to the combination of sand’s open structure and gravity, nutrients and organic matter will gradually leach through the underlying sandy particles over time. 

The only amendment that has been shown to be more or less permanent is clay, usually applied as a dry powder that can be raked gently into the soil. Adding clay to sandy soil can change its structure, though the quantities needed are large. Enough clay to make up 5% to 20% of the overall volume of the top 30cm to 60cm of soil is recommended - and for most gardens that’s a lot of clay.

Selecting Suitable Plants

A more sustainable and easier option than soil amendment is choosing to grow plants that are well-adapted to sandy soil. A ‘right plant in the right place’ approach will mean less need for soil amendments, as the plants will be suited to their growing conditions from the get-go. 

Many natives from coastal areas and Mediterranean plants will not just survive but thrive in sandy soils. Natives at home in these conditions include banksia, coastal rosemary, wattle and tea tree, along with native grasses, lilies and wildflowers. Examples of Mediterranean plants suited to sandy soil include lavender, rosemary, yarrow and sedum. These plants thrive in well-drained soil and require minimal supplemental watering once established.

If growing vegetables, carrots, beetroot and silverbeet, asparagus, artichoke, potatoes and Warrigal greens all grow well in sandy soil amended with some compost. Mediterranean herbs including sage, oregano, rosemary and thyme will also thrive.

Incorporating some medium to large trees in your garden design is also a good idea. The shade trees create in summer helps make the space more pleasant for humans, provides habitat for wildlife and can help retain soil moisture by reducing evaporation. Banksia, wattles and sheoaks grow well in many areas of Australia. Look to what’s growing in your local area too.

Watering

Proper watering is crucial when gardening on sandy soil. While sandy soil drains quickly, it also dries out rapidly, especially during hot and windy weather. To ensure adequate moisture retention, water deeply and infrequently, allowing the water to penetrate the soil deeply rather than evaporating on the surface. Watering in the early morning or late afternoon helps minimise water loss due to evaporation.

Using Raised Beds

Raised beds and large containers are a good option when growing nutrient-hungry fruit and vegetables in sandy soils. They allow gardeners to either buy in good quality topsoil or to fill the beds themselves in a ‘lasagne’ arrangement of layers of organic matter. Either way, raised beds provide an oasis of good, nutrient-rich growing space.

Gardening on sandy soil presents unique challenges, but with good soil management and appropriate plant selection, it's possible to create a productive and beautiful garden. So rather than see sandy soil as your enemy, harness its potential to cultivate a thriving landscape.

This pest is the cabbage aphid, known more formally as Brevicoryne brassicae, and as with its many aphid relatives, it can cause serious problems in the veggie patch if a population gets out of control.

Cabbage Aphid Life Cycle 

Cabbage aphids can spread with incredible speed. The adult females reproduce asexually for most of the growing season, producing clones of themselves when conditions are favourable and there's plenty of food around. Their offspring are themselves ready to reproduce in around eight days, and can go on to create five clones a day of their own for up to a month. Populations peak in autumn and late winter/spring, at temperatures of 20-25°C.

In contrast, male cabbage aphids are relatively scarce, mainly appearing toward the end of the season to fertilise eggs which overwinter in cold climates, starting the whole cycle going again come spring. In warmer areas of Australia the sexual phase of reproduction may be skipped altogether, as the aphids can continue to reproduce slowly at temperatures as low as 5°C.

Feeding Behaviour and Damage 

Cabbage aphids can harm your plants in two ways, both caused by their feeding behaviour. They inflict direct damage by chewing into the soft growth of the brassica, particularly its young leaves, flower buds and tender stalks, then sucking out the sap within. This stunts the plant, causes yellowing and curling leaves, risks bacterial infection, and ultimately reduces or even ruins the harvest.

Second, cabbage aphids are transmitters of several diseases including cauliflower mosaic virus  and turnip mosaic virus (otherwise known as cabbage ring spot virus), injecting the pathogens directly into the plant as they feed. Both of these viruses are incurable and can cause severe damage across your entire patch once they gain a foothold.

Spotting an Infestation 

Cabbage aphid eggs and nymphs are tiny and difficult to detect with the naked eye, so the first visible sign of an aphid infestation will often be wingless adults congregating on the undersides of leaves. These soft-bodied insects are up to 3mm in length and greenish-grey with a pale waxy coating. As the infestation progresses, the population may group around the growing tips and flowering parts of the plant, and more winged adults will start to appear in preparation for migrating to new feeding grounds as the population outgrows the host.

Cabbage Aphid Prevention and Control 

Combine the sheer amount of aphids produced across a season with the damage their feeding causes, and it's clear that you should do what you can to control their numbers. There are three main approaches to try.

1. Encourage or Introduce Natural Predators 

Cabbage aphids don't attract a huge variety of natural predators, as their brassica diet tends to make them taste mustardy and sulphurous, deterring many casual feeders. However, there are several aphid-loving hunters that are worth encouraging into your garden.

• Lacewing larvae feed on aphids, and the insects can be encouraged naturally or bought as eggs or larvae for introducing directly to infested plants.
• Hoverfly larvae are efficient aphid feeders, and you can attract egg-laying adults by growing small-flowered plants with high nectar levels, including coriander, dill, fennel, sweet alyssum and plants with daisy-like flowers.
• Aphid parasitic wasps lay eggs into aphid bodies, killing them in the process and breaking the reproductive cycle. The wasps may find their way into your garden naturally or can be bought in egg form for releasing into your veggie patch as they hatch.
• Lady beetle larvae and adults both feed on aphids and are effective at thinning out large populations. However, the adults will readily vacate an area once aphid numbers start to dwindle, so lady beetles are best seen as an emergency treatment rather than a preventative one.

2. Cultural Control 

Cabbage aphids' fast reproductive rate means catching infestations early is key. To help with this, control weeds around target plants to reduce cover and make it easier to see any developing problems. Take particular care to remove brassica weeds such as wild mustard which can attract aphid adults to begin an infestation.

As soon as you see an early infestation, remove either the affected leaves, or ideally the whole plant, and dispose of the waste in a compost heap. And lastly, remove any plant remnants once harvest is over to take care of eggs or remaining adult females that may be hiding.

3. Organic Sprays 

Chemical insecticide treatments are available for cabbage aphids but are mainly used in agriculture rather than the home garden, as they can also harm beneficial insects as a side effect. In addition, because aphids reproduce so quickly, populations will quickly build resistance to chemical sprays. 

On a domestic scale, organic sprays can be effective for removing populations and keeping overall numbers in check. A strong herbal tea made with peppermint can be sprayed onto young plants to act as a repellent, discouraging egg laying and preventing infestations. Mixing the same tea with a little horticultural soap can work to bog down and suffocate any adults already around. Homemade white oil can smother all kinds of soft-bodied pests, aphids included, while neem oil is a tried-and-tested organic solution that combines a smothering effect with a natural insecticidal action.

Whichever control method you choose, when it comes to cabbage aphids, the most important thing is to take action as soon as you spot a problem. Otherwise, their rapid reproductive rate will soon turn a few hungry visitors into a full-blown infestation.

It takes around 170 saffron crocus flowers to produce just one gram of saffron. Luckily for home gardeners, only a few flowers are needed to produce enough saffron to try in a dish or two, because the colour and flavour are highly concentrated. In this guide, we'll explore the steps to successfully grow saffron crocus corms, and learn how to harvest and dry the flowers’ brilliant red stigmas.

Growing Saffron Crocus

Crocus (Crocus sativus) is a perennial bulb that thrives in a climate with cold winters, making it ideal for arid, temperate and cold climates, especially those that experience regular frosts. Unfortunately for gardeners in subtropical and tropical climates, bulbs are unlikely to flower in warm climates. 

Preparation

Choose a permanent, sunny location with at least 6 hours of full sun each day. Ensure soil is loose and well drained, and dig in some organic matter a couple of weeks before planting the corms. Keep the soil weed-free until planting.

Crocus can also be grown in containers with a volume of at least 20 litres. Use fresh potting mix supplemented with a slow-release fertiliser.

Planting the Corms

Plant the corms in late summer or early autumn for flowering in late autumn. Space individual corms 10cm to 15cm apart and plant them 10cm deep with the pointed tip facing upwards. Water in well after planting, and keep the soil moist but not wet until shoots emerge.

Cultivation

Once the leaves emerge, water the plants when the soil is dry about 5cm below the surface. Crocus aren’t bothered by many pests and diseases, but keep an eye out for slugs and snails, which sometimes take a liking to the new shoots. 

After flowering, fertilise plants with blood and bone or pelletised chicken manure and allow the foliage to die down naturally. This helps the bulb absorb nutrients for the following growing season. Once the foliage has died down, cut the leaves off at ground level. Crocus corms can remain in the ground for several years without lifting. Mulch heavily with lucerne or pea straw in summer to protect them from hot temperatures.

Harvesting and Drying Saffron

The parts of the flower that are used as saffron are the three bright red stigmas, also called threads. These can be removed in situ, leaving the flowers for your enjoyment, or whole flowers can be harvested and then the stigmas detached. As crocus flowers bloom very close to soil level, the latter option is preferred by most gardeners.

If harvesting whole flowers, pick them early in the morning just as they open. Peel back the petals and remove the three red stigmas by pinching them off at the base using your fingers or a pair of tweezers.

The threads can be used fresh but are more commonly dried for future use. Use a dehydrator on low setting or gently heat the threads in the oven at 75°C for a short time. Alternatively, air dry the threads on a paper towel for three to five days. Store the dried threads in an airtight jar or container in a dark place for 12 months or more.

Cooking with Saffron

Given saffron’s expense and the small harvest likely from home gardens, it’s fortunate that a little saffron goes a long way in the kitchen. Saffron is a key ingredient in iconic Mediterranean dishes like Spanish paella and Provencal bouillabaisse (fish stew). In Indian cooking, saffron adds an earthy flavour to curries and the distinctive orange-yellow colour to saffron rice. Saffron can also be used in risotto, tagines, and even tea and cocktails.

Dried saffron threads are usually soaked in one to two tablespoons of water for around 30 minutes prior to use. This helps to distribute the colour and earthy flavour evenly when it's added to a recipe. The threads can be added to dishes along with the water, or strained off and just the infused water used, depending on your preference. Don’t overdo it or an underlying bitter flavour will overpower the more earthy, floral notes of the spice.

Easily attainable with a little care and attention, cultivating saffron is a rewarding venture. So why not add a touch of exotic colour and flavour to your cooking by growing saffron crocus in your garden?